There is no room for violence anywhere in the world - including sport. When I say violence, I don't mean in physical sports like boxing or wrestling. I'm talking about general fisticuffs that takes place either before, during or after a matchup. Unfortunately, there's no telling what can happen at the end of it. At best, a few bruises, however, at its worst, deaths.
It's important to define what violence in sport means. It refers to inappropriate and harmful behaviour portrayed and acted by fans; players; coaches and other stakeholders. This is related to the sporting incidences or events and that which violates the rules and regulation of sports and leading to physical injury of an individual. The most distinguished characteristic of violence is that it's initiated and/or propagated with a view to imparting harm on the opponent, another individual or property which is as a result of reactive aggression which has some emotional characteristic (IvyPanda, 2022).
Nowadays, violence can be seen by blood scenes, court cases and other misconduct. Attempts to end violences has been made by various sporting bodies. FIFA, football's governing body, has stated that winning is achieved through honesty and fair play (IvyPanda, 2022).
There are various reasons and causes for violence. It's mostly through poor officiating of player violations (IvyPanda, 2022). The major causes of it are: Pressure to win; differences as concerns who wins and who looses; weaker sanctions as pertaining violence-related incidences; when the officials poorly perform their job; failure of coaches to control players or them encouraging players to break laws and the societal macho image associated to men that encourages retaliation with violence as a way of being perceived as courageous (IvyPanda, 2022, cited, Pooley, 1987).
It's not just coaches who might create the initial actions that takes place. Teammates might be at fault as well. Teammates might encourage each other to do it. Participation of players in such incidences may receive a conscious judgment from the fans and players of the opposing team. This may result to violence if the punishment is considered unfair or inadequate (IvyPanda, 2022).
There is an indication that violence in sports may arise as a result of media activity. This includes an emphasis that they may lay the importance of matches and events. Media, in its part, can't contribute to sport violence alone but may lead to increased excitement among the fans. This is based on how they present their information pertaining to the competition, team and other things (IvyPanda, 2022).
It's sad to mention that even fans are at fault. Since these fans and fanatics take pride in the victory of the teams they support. Considering that negative publicity of certain teams or players may seem to empower them to critic their opponents; differences may arise resulting in violence, more likely because sports are emotional events (IvyPanda, 2022).
There's a framework for discussion of aggression and violence. There are three general approaches to the phenomenon of aggression. The first views aggression as an instinctive drive, the second considers it a drive stimulated by frustration and the third asserts that aggression is a learned social behaviour (Terry & Jackson, 1985).
The approach by instictive drive refers to aggression and violence that someone is born with rather than a learned behaviour. People who believe in this theory, are under the belief that sport can be a cathartic purpose, allowing pent-up aggression to be channelled into a comparatively harm-free pursuit (Terry & Jackson, 1985). It is said that sports is a, "a salutary purgation of combative instincts which, if damned up within, would break out in a disastrous way" (Terry & Jackson, 1985, cited, Brill, 1963, pp. 97).
The Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis was created by Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer and Sears (1939). This hypothesis states that the occurrence of aggression always presupposes the existence of some form of frustration and conversely, the existence of frustration always leads to some form of aggression, although not necessarily an overt act of violence (Terry & Jackson, 1985).
This theory supercedes the innate vs learned approach because there's no guessing as to the origin of the frustration-aggression relationship. Despite this, the nature of the frustration-aggression relationship remains controversial. The original assertion, that aggression presupposes a frustration, has been challenged consistently (Terry & Jackson, 1985). For instance, it has been argued that animals will often act aggressively with no cause for frustration present (Terry & Jackson, 1985, cited, Scott, 1966).
In addition to psychological and situational influences, athletes are subjected to a powerful socialisation process by which they learn appropriate and inappropriate behaviours. According to Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1973), the basis of socialisation lies in the dual processes of reinforcement and modeling (Terry & Jackson, 1985).
Reinforcement is probably the most well-known determination of future behaviour (Skinner, 1953). Reinforcement can either be positive or negative. Positive refers to implicit or explicit approval and/or material reward. Negative refers to disapproval, criticism or punishments. In sport, reinforcements for acts of violence emanate from a variety of sources, which may be conveniently be grouped under three headings: (a) the immediate reference group ofthe athlete, especially coaches, teammates, and family; (b) the structure of the sport and the implementation of rules by governing bodies and referees and (c) the attitude of the fans, media, courts of law, and society in general (Terry & Jackson, 1985).
Modelling refers to the imitation. Modeling involves the imitation of behaviour, especially that which is perceived as successful. As sport, particularly professional sport, receives so much media coverage, that it's quite normal for young athletes to imitate the behaviour of their heroes in the professional leagues. Research suggests that imitative behaviour does include the emulation of violence (Terry & Jackson, 1985).
The modeling process endows professional sport with a special responsibility: to set desirable examples of behaviour. It's absolutely vital today as professional athletes have the power to infiuence the next generation of sportsmen and sportswomen. However, as the behaviour of professional athletes is in turn infiuenced by the reinforcements and pressures directed at them by coaches, teammates, fans, the media, sports promotors and league executives; the responsibility for creating healthy role models must be spread evenly among all those sources (Terry & Jackson, 1985).
Violence can be presented in many contexts in sport. Non-accidental violence is defined by the International Olympic Cmmittee (IOC) as, "Maltreatment through harassment and abuse (Edwards, Claussen & Schmidt, 2023, cited, Mountjoy et al., 2016), which can include physical, sexual, and psychological harassment and abuse as well as neglect. Many studies refer to this type of violence as “interpersonal violence in sport” (Edwards, Claussen & Schmidt, 2023, cited, Vertommen et al., 2018).
Children are also at risk of being on the receiving end of violence. This can either be from coaches, peers and even an athlete's entourage (Edwards et al., 2023, cited, Mountjoy et al., 2016). It's been reported that severe sexual, physical and psychological interpersonal violence experienced in childhood was associated with more psychological distress and reduced quality of life as an adult (Edwards et al., 2023, cited, Vertommen et al., 2018).
There are mental health issues to this as well. This can include: Neuropsychiatric sequelae; traumatic brain injuries; anger management issues and substance use disorders. The impacts of maltreatment in sport have been documented. These includes: Higher prevalence of depression; anxiety; Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD); suicidality; substance use disorder; eating disorders; self-harm behaviours and dropping out of sport (Edwards et al., 2023, cited, Vertommen et al., 2018).
The various types of violence that can occur in sports may be experienced by any athlete at any age in any sport at any level from any nation at any time. As research into the individual, environmental and organisational risks factors that contribute to violence in sport, further informs governments and sports organisations at all levels, education and policies can begin to affect change (Edwards et al., 2023, cited, Mountjoy et al., 2016).
For an athlete to become successful, they need to be able to control and regulate their emotions (Abrams, Bartlett & Prewitt-White, 2015, cited, Hanin, 2000; Ruiz & Hanin, 2011 ). Yes, there are sports that are violent by nature but that doesn't invite violence to take place outside the sport fields. Hence, it's gives the athletes a unique challenge. It's imperitive that all sport stakeholders - coaches, administrators and parents make systematic interventions - preferably starting with the young - to limit violence and set boundriees for behaviours (Abrams, Bartlett & Prewitt-White, 2015).
The sports scene has often been used for violent purposes. There's the Munich Games of 1972 to the attacks in Paris in 2015. They are targeted because the sporting venues brings together the connection and reflection on society. Unfortunately, there will most likely be other attacks. Sports seems to be the perfect distraction from the outside, violent world. Sports can help us cope with violence, whether as a distraction or an opportunity for us to turn to our heroes (Abrams, Bartlett & Prewitt-White, 2015).
It's not just athletes who are at fault for violence. Crowds and spectators are also involved in this. Spectator violence has taken place since the Greek & Roman empires. These can take place where ever fans gather. This can be at sporting events and entertainment events. Problems with "football hooligans" in Britain are so widespread that violence occurring at events elsewhere has been labeled as the "spread of the English Disease." Violence levels tend to vary by type of entertainment or sporting event and across cultures (Madensen & Eck, 2008).
There are six common forms of spectator aggression: 1) Verbal - singing, chanting, and yelling taunts or obscenities; 2) Gesturing - signaling to others with threatening or obscene motions; 3) 'Missile' throwing - throwing items such as food, drinks, bricks, bottles, broken seats, and cell phones at particular or random targets; 4) Swarming - rushing the field or stage and trying to crash the gates to gain entry, or rushing the exit, both of which may result in injury or death from trampling; 5) Property destruction - knocking down sound systems, tearing up the playing field and burning/damaging the venue or others' property & 6) Physical - spitting, kicking, shoving, fistfights, stabbings and shootings (Madensen & Eck, 2008).
There are three main spectator violence reasoning, namely, venue; event and staff. There are sub categories for each as well. Venue wise - there's performance proximity - where there's a lack of appropriate distance between the spectator and the performer/s; noise level - research has found that extreme noise levels increase the likelihood of interpersonal aggression; seating arrangements - one of the most consistent findings regarding higher levels of aggression in stadiums relates to the type of seating available to spectators. Individual seats are related to lower violence levels while general admission seating that requires spectators to stand, often referred to as festival seating, generates higher violence levels; place reputation - some places experience more violence than others. Some banks are robbed more. Some bars experience more fights between patrons. Therefore, it's not surprising to find that some stadiums experience more violence than others; temparature - studies have found a positive relationship between heat and both spectator and performer aggression. As the temperature increases in stadiums and arenas, so does the likelihood of violence and finally, stadium locations - residents often oppose the construction of new stadiums because they fear increased violence, noise, litter and parking troubles that will drive down residential property values (Madensen & Eck, 2008).
Event wise, there's Crowd demographics - males are more likely to engage in violent behaviors. Acts that tend to attract more males, particularly younger males, are more likely to generate violence than acts that draw demographically mixed crowds; event significance - an event considered significant can provoke aggression among spectators. For instance, an important victory can produce celebratory rioting within the stadium or in adjacent parking lots or neighborhoods; performance significance - spectators may be more likely to act out if their team performs poorly. Aggression in sports fans has been associated with team performances that did not live up to spectator expectations; alcohol availability - special considerations must be made if event organisers decide to make alcohol available at a particular event. There is a large body of research that suggests intoxication is related to aggressive behavior; crowding - another factor contributing to increased levels of spectator aggression is crowding. Crowding increases the likelihood of violence for a variety of reasons: it limits mobility, increases the likelihood of unwanted physical contact between spectators and increases wait times for entry, purchases, and exiting; performer behaviour - an event's performers can influence spectators' behavior. Artists' failure to perform has incited riots & event duration - A stadium event's actual duration is always longer than the time allotted for it. The assembly and dispersal process can significantly lengthen the time of larger and more popular events and thus allow more time for spectators to engage in violent behaviours (Madensen & Eck, 2008).
Staff wise, there's Training - security and other employees can reduce or increase spectator frustration and aggression; experience - too many inexperienced staff may lessen the effectiveness of event management strategies. Inexperienced staff who can't identify potential threats and respond to them appropriately may not only allow spectator violence to occur but also instigate or escalate violent situations; presence - staff presence, particularly that of security personnel, influences fan violence in several ways. First, an adequate number of staff must be present to secure the event and second, event planners must balance the need for visible security as a deterrent with the problem of aggression that the presence of too many uniformed officers may instigate and communication - almost every study on maintaining stadium order stresses the importance of an effective command post. A clear chain of command must be established so that staff performing various functions can both receive orders to act and report potential or immediate threats (Madensen & Eck, 2008).
There are three instances that I want to use to illustrate this whole article: The Ellis Park disaster; Malice at the Palace & the assassination of Andrés Escobar.
The Ellis Park disaster took place on 11 April 2001. It was a Soweto Derby PSL (Premier Soccer League) match between Orlando Pirates and Kaizer Chiefs. 43 people passed away. The government formed a commission of inquiry to investigate the matter. To begin with, they underestimated the amount of people that would come. Such a gross underestimation of possible attendance must be seen as the fundamental cause of the tragedy. No plans were in place to deal with a capacity crowd, let alone a crowd in excess thereof (as turned out to be the case).
Lessons weren't learned from the past. The commission referred to the disasters of Orkney in 1991 and another one at Ellis Park in October 1998 – both of which took place during Soweto derbies involving Chiefs and Pirates.
Evidence indicates that at approximately 19:15, the stadium manager asked a senior metropolitan police representative to announce to the stadium that the tickets were sold out, that the stadium was full and that people were urged to go home and watch the game on television. The announcement, was made as a strategy to discourage the many spectators who could not be accommodated in the stadium.
The problem was that, due to a lack of coordinated information, some of the officials inside the stadium, including the referee and senior soccer officials, were not aware of the chaos outside the stadium. It was not until 40 minutes into the game that the CEO of the PSL stopped the game. The argument that delaying kick-off could also have caused rioting is not acceptable; it all depends on how any given situation is handled.
The demand for tickets kept on growing, particularly after 18:00. On this particular occasion, the sale of tickets on site and on the day of the match certainly contributed to the problems. The game was to be held midweek and in the evening, giving people the chance to go to the stadium to watch the match after work.
The Malice at the Palace was a Basketball game that took place between the Indiana Pacers and the Detroit Pistons. It happened on 19 November 2004. It started as a disagreement between Indiana Pacers forward Ron Artest and Detroit Pistons power forward Ben Wallace. After laying on the scorers table to de-escalate things, Artest was hit with a beer. He went into the crowd and attacked a fan. Things quickly escalated and players and fans started to fight in a harrowing scene. Artest was later suspended for 73 games and the playoffs. Wallace and Pacers players, Stephen Jackson, Jermaine O’Neal and Anthony Johnson, all get significant suspensions. The Pacers — a perennial Eastern Conference contender team that appeared ready to make a title run — are decimated and eventually rebuild. An Amusing fact - after this, Ron Artest changed his name to Metta World Peace - due to his interest in Buddhism.
The saddest case of them all is the assssination of footballer Andrés Escobar. On 22 June 1994, Escobar was the Colombian captain playing in the World Cup. They were playing a group stage game against the United States (U.S.) when he inadvertantly scored an own goal. The U.S. would win 2-1 as a result. This result meant that Colombia were eliminated from the tournament.
Ten days later, on the early morning of 2 July 1994, Andrés Escobar was confronted by a group of men outside a club in his hometown, Medellín, the second-largest city in Colombia and the namesake of its most infamous drug cartel.
The men taunted Escobar for the own goal. He tried to reason with them. He was sitting in his car. He said the goal had been an honest mistake. He insisted that they treat him with respect. One of the men drew a pistol, shot Escobar six times and killed him. According to CNN, the man yelled “goal” each time he pulled the trigger.
Humberto Castro Muñoz was a bodyguard and driver for the Gallon brothers, a pair of powerful criminals and drug traffickers. The Gallon brothers had reportedly lost large sums of money betting on Colombia’s matches at the World Cup.
Escobar’s funeral drew thousands of Colombians, who followed the car carrying his body on a 10-mile walk to the cemetery.
Violence in sport is ultimately unpredictable. It can happen in any form. I don't like saying this but I don't think there's a solution to this chaos. It's an evitable occurence. It's bound to happen over and over again. It's unstoppable. I will never condone these actions. It's disgusting and an act of desparation.
"Serious sport has nothing to do with fair play. It is bound up with hatred, jealousy, boastfulness, disregard for all rules and sadistic pleasure in witnessing violence: in other words it is war minus the shooting."
- George Orwell
Reference List
Abrams, M., Bartlett, M. & Prewitt-Witt, P. 2015. Sport and violence. [online]. Available from: https://www.apadivisions.org/division-47/publications/newsletters/exercise-sport/2015/12/sport-violence. [Accessed: 30 April 2024]. APA Divisions.
Claussen, M.C., Edwards, C. & Schmidt, R.E. 2023. Mental health impacts of interpersonal violence in sports, Sports Psychiatry. 2023; 2 (1):1–2, doi: https://doi.org/10.1024/2674-0052/a000039.
Eck, J.E. & Madensen, T.D. 2008. Spectator violence in stadiums. [online]. Available from: https://popcenter.asu.edu/content/spectator-violence-stadiums-0. [Accessed: 30 April 2024]. ASU Center for Problem-Oriented Policing.
IvyPanda. 2022. Violence in sports: History and causes research paper. [online]. Available from: https://ivypanda.com/essays/violence-in-sports-history-and-causes/ [Accessed: 30 April 2024].
Jackson, J.J. & Terry, P.C. 1985. The determinants and control of violence in sport, Quest, 37, 27-37. doi: 10.1080/00336297.1985.10483817.
Source Material
Lage, L. 2022. AP Was There: Artest dispute turns into Malice at Palace. AP News.
Mothowagae, D. 2022. Ellis Park disaster: What went wrong on April 11 2001? News24.
Phillips, B. 2022. Andrés Escobar, an Own Goal, and Tragedy at the 1994 World Cup. The Ringer.